Northern Studies and Anthropology　　　Takashi Irimoto

1. From Northern Culture to Human Universality
　Northern culture refers to the mode of life unique to northern areas, i.e. ecology, society and culture, dating back to the advance into Northern Eurasia by modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) in terms of the processes of human evolution and proliferation to the New World. This can be equated to the entirety of northern culture that has evolved and developed up until the present. At the same time, research on northern culture is wide-ranging and is also considered to be anthropological research. It is possible to proceed with research by considering northern regions as cultural domains, extensively specifying Northern Eurasia, Japan and North America and constantly performing comparative reviews of whether the cultural characteristics are indeed northern characteristics or characteristics universal to all human beings regardless of geographical location. By doing so, we can consider northern culture in the context of overall human culture and approach a more universal issue, i.e. “What are human beings?”
　We defined northern culture as mentioned above and stipulated the direction of our research in 1992 when we founded the Northern Studies Association (NSA) and held the first international symposium in commemoration of the Society’s foundation at Hokkaido University. Over the past 10 years, we have held three international symposia through which comparative study of characteristics of northern culture was performed under the themes of “Northern Religion and Ecology,” “Northern Animism and Shamanism” and “Northern Ethnicity and Identity.”
　Extracted as a result as characteristics of northern culture were the concept of original oneness, in which human beings and animals are essentially the same, the concept of recognizing relations between human beings and the supernatural as reciprocity and the concept of regarding nature in its entirety, including human beings, as circulation and symbiosis. It was also clarified that these concepts were closely connected with ecology, society and the worldview centering on northern hunting.
　I believe, however, that these characteristics are not limited to northern culture, but are actually universal concepts for all human beings. Shedding light on why these human concepts were born and how they are currently functioning within the framework of the processes of human evolution can be equated with the elucidation of the human mind and to the answer to the anthropological proposition, “What are human beings?” Research has developed from the pursuit of understanding of northern culture to that of human universality. This development involves the domains of social norms, cultural evolution and conflict resolution.
2. Social Norms
　As part of a COE(Center of Excellence) Project at Hokkaido University regarding culture and ecological foundation of the mind, it is necessary to conduct field work within society itself concurrently with evolution game models and experiments. This is because verification of model and experiment results based on data obtained from this fieldwork will enable the establishment of new models and experiments. By repeating these scientific verifications, we can approach the universal understanding of human beings. To this end, the field data accumulated thus far will be reorganized and reexamined. Furthermore, new fieldwork will be conducted from new perspectives.
　The mechanism of the mind, which forms human society, is reflected in social norms. Norms here do not simply refer to written laws and other rules. More extensively, it includes manners, such as how to interact with other people in our daily lives, customs, taboos, etc. For example, the Koryak people, who are reindeer nomads living in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Northern Eurasia, provide guests with hospitality, and they believe that this hospitality brings affluence to their families. In addition, they believe that if someone wishes for the misfortune of others, s/he will meet the same end in the future. Furthermore, in years when production volume is large due to high numbers of reindeer births, for example, the family at issue hosts a reindeer race and other competitions, to which the family invites villagers, provides them with presents and treats them to meals. It is believed that behind these norms and behaviors are circular thought and the ordinary idea of reciprocity. People attempt to improve human relationships by maintaining not only realistic redistribution of wealth, but also groups through various norms.
3. Cultural Evolution
　The shift from hunting to nomadic grazing in the history of human evolution has also brought about major changes in worldviews and human behavior. Worldviews correspond to the recognition of the world by human beings. Worldviews partially differ depending on culture. Conversely, there are also some things that have transcended cultural differences and are considered to be universal to all human beings. Worldviews include the concept of religion, and human beings attempt to improve their relations with the supernatural world through rituals.
　Reindeer hunting people who live in forested areas in Canada believe that hunting means that animals, which exist spiritually, voluntarily come to people to offer their flesh. Therefore, people should pay respect to reindeer. In this sense, relations between people and reindeer are considered to be direct exchanges of meat and respect between two parties.
　On the other hand, the Koryak people in Northern Eurasia, who are reindeer nomads, obtain meat from reindeer. For the life and health of the reindeer concerned, however, they make sacrificial offerings of reindeer to the guardian deity of house, which is also the God of Fire referred to as Gichigi, and to the master spirit and creator of reindeer. That is, human beings make sacrificial offerings of reindeer to higher order gods, who then provide reindeer herds with life and health, and reindeer present themselves as meat to human beings. This is tantamount to indirect exchanges among three parties, i.e. gods, human beings and reindeer.
　The worldview held by reindeer hunting people and nomads includes the advent of new gods, loss of reindeer spirituality and changes in relations among them.
4. Conflict Resolution
　It has become clear from research on ethnicity and identity in northern culture that the concept of symbiosis plays a role in the resolution of ethnic conflicts. The first half of the 21st century is referred to as the period of ethnic conflicts. As seen in the collapse of socialistic states, for example, this is because relations between nation states and ethnic groups as well as between ethnic groups changed and ethnic minorities that had once been oppressed started to assert themselves. A great number of people have been killed or become refugees as a result of large-scale violent conflicts. This prompted us to anthropologically explore various conflict resolution mechanisms that should have been fundamentally incorporated in culture.
　We are currently trying to clarify the factors involved in ethnic conflicts from broad perspectives by drawing world conflict maps with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and superimposing various types of information to grasp the current situation of ethnic conflicts.
　At the same time, we are individually analyzing specific case study examples of conflict resolutions through fieldwork. The role of the concept of symbiosis is being clarified through the analysis of conflicts over cultural revival in Ainu culture and their resolution. In addition, we are exploring how to resolve ethnic conflicts based on research on Tibetan refugees in India. Nearly 50 years have already passed since the Dalai Lama went into exile and there are now second and third generation refugees. It may be possible to attribute conflict resolution to the mechanism of the human mind if conflicts are resolved through nonviolent means and the philosophy of compassion.
　If the results obtained from the analysis and examination of the aforementioned research even slightly contribute to the well-being of human beings in the future, I believe that this research will have been meaningful.
References
Irimoto, Takashi
　1981 Chipewyan Ecology. Senri Ethnological Studies, No.8, Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
　1996 Bunka no Shizenshi (An Anthropology of Nature and Culture). Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
　2004 The Eternal Cycle−Ecology, Worldview and Ritual of Reindeer Herders of Northern Kamchatka. Senri Ethnological Reports No.48, Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
Irimoto, Takashi and Takako Yamada
　2004 Circumpolar Ethnicity and Identity. Senri Ethnological Studies, No.66, Osaka:National Museum of Ethnology.
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